LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Chap. Copyright No. 

Shelf 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



IMMORTALITY 

AND 

HAPPINESS. 

ANALYTICAL OUTLINES 

ESTABLISHING THE 

IMMATERIALITY OF MIND 

AND 

The Conditions of Human Misery and Welfare. 

BY Q M, STKVANS, 

Author of " The Morals of the Poets;' 

" The Ridiculous and the Sublime" 

"The Analysis of Moral Man", Etc. 



CHICAGO: 
C, M. STEVANS & COMPANY, 
Publishers. 



44848 



1m Copies Received 
SEP 8 J900 

SEC oho copy. 
OfiC'tR DIVISION. 

80120 



Copyright, 1900, 
By C. M. STEVANS. 



"SHALL WE LIVE AGAIN," and 
"HOW MAY WE FIND HAPPINESS," 
are two questions of supreme interest 
to the human race in all ages and for 
all time. The study and consideration of 
these all-important themes may be greatly as- 
sisted by bringing in order the collateral and 
correlative principles and conclusions. The 
nature of such a task necessarily . makes its 
work incomplete and insufficient, therefore 
the value of this book is intended to rest in 
its wide range of suggestions in the truths of 
IMMORTALITY and HAPPINESS. 



THE IMMATERIALITY OF MIND. 



The normal mind consists of: 

1. Mental faculties proper: Instincts and 

tendencies; habits and intuition; con- 
sciousness; subconsciousness; mental 
reflexes; memory; retentiveness. 

2. Mental states: Mental disposition; 

ethical state; aesthetic state; sensual 
state; knowledge; beliefs; decisions; 
sentiments; affections. 

3. Mental action: Emotions; reproduc- 

tiveness; recollection; ideation; rea- 
soning, judging, discrimination, com- 
position, etc.; attentiveness ; affectivi- 
ty; desiring; brain energy production; 
endurance; volition; imagination; in- 
hibition. 

Fundamental Principles of the Mind: 

1. It bears responsible relations to body 

and to matter. 

2. In realizing its own existence, it finds 

its relationships to other minds. 
It may discover and estimate its facul- 
ties, means, and possibilities, 



6 



It realizes its growth and gratifications. 

It establishes the use and laws of cause 
and effect. 

It comprehends its powers of compari- 
son and judgment. 

It decides and acts upon its judgments. 

It investigates, — 

1. By observation. 

2. By measurement. 

3. By calculation. 

It proves, — 

1. By ocular demonstration. 

2. By progressive approaches. 

3. By the concurrence and in- 

duction of fact. 

It formulates and plans, — 

1. For the useful. 

2. For the beautiful and true. 

3. For the present gains of evil 

gratification. 

4. For the righteous needs of per- 

sonal, social, or national 
duty. 

It accepts the unalterable laws of na- 
ture as found and regulates itself 
thereby. 



7 



It learns that it is superior to natural 
law, in so far that it cam use individual 
laws against one another and thereby 
gain desirable results. 

3. The fundamental principles of law are, 

— causes and effects cannot exist 
alone. 

The same causes always produce 

the same effects. 
Any change in the one indicates a 

corresponding change in the 

other. 

4. As far as mind can perceive and con- 

ceive, laws immutable and supreme, 
prevail through all the realms of be- 
ing, therefore the welfare of man de- 
mands a comprehensible comprehen- 
sive system of harmonial growth and 
moral excellence, whereby successful 
living may be attained. 

The natural competency of mind is shown in 
that: 

It inherits the capability of determining and 

obeying law. 
It considers the conditions of modifying 

rights. 



8 

It acquires observations and perceptions. 

The moral competency of mind prevails: 
In establishing the personal rights of, 



I. 


Reputation. 


2. 


Pronertv 


? 


Preverence. 


4 


Philanthropy. 


5- 


Patriotism. 


6. 


Self-culture. 


7- 


Usefulness. 


8. 


Fidelity. 


9- 


Veracity. 


IO. 


Chastity. 


ii. 


Liberty. 




Civil. 




Political. 




Religious. 



In comprehending the basis of right. 

In knowing the extent of right. 

In maintaining the standard of right in,- 

1. Self-interest. 

2. Friendship. 

3. Love. 

4. Mercy. 

5. Charity. 



9 



6. Utility. 

7. Custom. 

8. Honor. 

9. Nature. 

10. Country. 

11. Religion. 

In determining cognative morals from in- 
tuition and development. 

In appreciating ethical values. 

In analyzing and proscribing personal po- 
tentialities. 

1. As to propensities. 

Amativeness. 
Philoprogenitiveness. 

Concentrativeness. 
Adhesiveness. 

Destructiveness. 

Alimentativeness. 

Secretiveness. 

Acquisitiveness. 

Constructiveness. 

2. As to the sentiments. 

Self-esteem. 

Love of approbation. 



10 



Cautiousness. 

Benevolence. 

Veneration. 

Firmness. 

Conscientiousness. 

Hope. 

Wonder. 

Ideality. 

Mirthfulness. 

Imitation. 

In apprehending and providing against the 
ethical characters shown in the evi- 
dences of, — 

I. Forwardness as in: 
Verbosity. 
Rudeness. 
Shamelessness. 
Garrulity. 
Gossip. 
Fussiness. 
Officiousness. 
Discourtesy. 
Querulousness. 
Boastfulness. 



1 1 



Insolence. 

Domineering. 

Recklessness. 

2. Mean artfulness as in: 

Flattery. 

Trivial complaisance. 

Meanness. 

Stinginess. 

Vanity. 

Parsimony. 

Slander. 

Deception. 

3. Weakness as in: 

Senility. 

Cowardice. 

Vexatiousness. 

Untidiness. 

Mistrustfulness. 

Superstition. 

Stupidity. 

Unseasonableness. 

In learning and obeying laws for the forma- 
tion of character as to 



12 



1 . The essential condition of reigning dis- 

positions as in: 

Association. 

Habits. 

Powers, intellectual and executive. 

2. The essential virtues of reigning well- 

being which are: 

Reverence. 

Modesty. 

Sympathy. 

Courage. 

Temperance. 

Justice. 

Love. 

In comprehending that the moral strength of 
life is in individual character correct- 
ly exercised in: 

1. The family. 

2. The neighborhood. 

3. Society. 

4. The nation. 

5. A universal brotherhood. 

In acquiring moral excellence and perfec- 
tional personalities: 



13 



In building character from 

1. Axiomatic first principles of character. 

2. Theoretical ideas of: 

Mercy. 

Reciprocity. 

Truth. 

3. Practical experiences in, — Negative in- 

tuitions against: 

1. Ungratefulness. 

2. Robbery. 

3. Punishment of innocence. 

Positive instincts: 

1. To repay obligations. 

2. To care for worthy dependents. 

Belief. (An assent of the mind to an alleged 
fact or truth.) 

Ic Primary and original. 

Intuitional and axiomatic. 
According to human nature. 
Religious instincts. 

2. Grounds for belief. 

That of testimony, (witnesses.) 
I. Credibility of witnesses. 



14 



The act to fall within the range of the 
senses. 

The degree of attention given. 
Reliability of memory and intelligence. 
Unbiased and impartial or of un- 
changeable veracity. 
Credibility of witnesses. 
Many witnesses preferred. 
Competence. 
Truthfulness. 

Diverse vocations of witnesses. 
Diverse modes of life. 
Diverse ages. 
Diverse education. 
Diverse environments. 
Character. 

Absence of contrary motives. 
Concurrence in the main events. 

Credibility of advisers: 

The person must have studied the 
theory with sufficient means and ra- 
tional understanding or he must have 
reasonable deductions from special 
experience. 

His mental powers must be sufficient 
in comprehension. 



He must be earnestly seeking the truth 
and his moral feelings must be 
normal. 

If he differs from the concensus of 
other competent judges, his proofs 
must be incontrovertable. 
6. Fact, (an effect produced or achieved.) 
Essential conditions in the considera- 
tion of fact. 

1. It must be conceivable. 

2. It must come within con- 
sciousness. 

3. It must be amenable to reason. 

Requirements in attainment of fact: 

1. Attention. 

2. Comparison. 

3. Analysis. 

The immateriality of mind: 

Statement: The soul cannot be identified 
with the body unless through: 

1. Materialism, wherein the body pro- 
duces mental functions. 

2. Sensationism, the body necessary to 
mental functions. 



i6 

3. Idealism, representing mental func- 
tions, which it does not produce. 

Sources of belief: 

1. Feeling. 

2. Imagination. 

3. Faith. 

4. Reflection. 

Belief brought forth by: 

1. Instinctive desire. 

2. Analogical observation. 

3. Prescriptive authority. 

4. Philosophical speculation. 

Taking the man uninformed by revelation 
or education, the strongest intimation would 
come from the reasoning that as matter (the 
body) is not annihilated, but only changed, 
so the superior spirit that occupies it must be 
indestructible. Then, too, the personality 
that is conscious of being constantly and irre- 
sistibly borne beyond the limits of mortality, 
both by its hopes and its fears, by its sense 
of incompleteness and consequent aspiration, 
by its bereaved affections and heart-hunger, 
its self accusation and dread of judgment. 

Physical. 

Allied apparitions. 



17 



Disease of body does not necessarily 
affect brain. 

Indiscerptibility of soul. 
Metaphysical. 

Goodness, truth and beauty. 
Theological. 

Benevolence of Creator. 
Philosophical. 

Ideas of eternity and infinity. 

Evolution endless. 

Reasons adduced concerning a belief in im- 
mortality: 

1. The duality of mind, or unity of mind 

with dual faculties. 

Mentality being physical and mortal. 

Spirituality being immaterial and im- 
mortal. 

2. Mental and spiritual differences. 
Mentality is wholly subjective. 
Spirituality is wholly subjective. 
Peculiar phenomena. 

1. Telepathy. 

2. Hypnotism. 

3. Intuitive perception. 



i8 

Theories advanced in proof of immortality : 

1. Self-consciousness is not a property of 

matter. 

2. Power is distinct from matter and im- 

material, human body is matter con- 
taining a power that is a unity and 
immaterial. 

3. Complex organisms of brain evolve a 

unity of thought presupposing an in- 
divisible source, which therefore is 
not material. 

4. Consciousness is simple and its power 

an absolute integer immaterial and 
eternal. 

5. The soul is a simple structure, only 

compound structures are subject to 
disintregation. 

6. The consciousness of mental indivisi- 

bility. 

7. Can not imagine the annihilation of 

space, or time or self all being pri- 
mary and indestructible truths. 

Causality a primary truth. 

Causality operates on substance. 

Recognition of causality operating on 
substance requires mind. 



19 



The metaphysical impulse of mind is 
from the innate causality of soul. 

8. Cognitions are immaterial and they 

continue to exist. 

9. The conviction, the unbroken continu- 

ance of conscious' personal identity, 
notwithstanding the change of our 
bodily frame by the flux of its com- 
ponent particles, and in spite of sleep 
and fits of insensibility. 

Time exists only in our consciousness. 

Beginning and end are only in time., 

Consequently beginning and end exist 
only in our consciousness. 

The past is a memorv. 

The future is a supposition. 

The present is extentionless. 

The will is a primary causality and is 
timeless and spaceless, therefore om- 
nipresent and eternal. 

10. The implied independence of the body 

from the independence of its parts. 

11. The phenomena of psychic powers. 

12. Nerve shrinks from pain and death, no 

matter what the cause, mind faces 
both with enthusiasm in fidelity to 
its wants. 



V 



20 

13. Mind may look with disgust or pride 

upon the body in which it operates. 

14. There are faculties in the mind having 

no apparent affinities or uses in mor- 
tal life. 

15. The power of self-moving. 

16. The excellence and extent of thought. 

17. The inherent desire to live for altruistic 

purposes. 

18. Love survives the death of the loved 

one. 

19. The means of self-evolution in self-cul- 

ture. Man's sense of the inadequacy 
of this life present for the full devel- 
opment of what is latent in him. 

20. The universal instinct and hope of 

mankind. 

21. Doctrine of centuries: Labor to rest, 

rest to labor; light to darkness, dark- 
ness to light; life to death, death to 
life. 

Physical science: 

Facts, inertia, momentum, velocity, mass, 
energy. 

Hylozium, mystic properties of matter. 



21 



Relation of physical and mental facts: 

Mutually independent — idealism. 

Mutually convertible expression of com- 
mon energy. 

Mental energy attends the physical as 
sound waves the vibrating body or 
light the illuminating object. 

Objections to Hylozoistic Materialism: 

Thoughts and feelings subjective. 
Rational life demand unitary conscious- 
ness and a unitary subject. 
Thought must have a single subject. 
The phenomena of memory imply unity. 

Materialism and knowledge: 

If matter can think, there is yet no pro- 
vision for its persistent striving for 
logical conclusions. 

Physical and mental life experimentally 
inseparable, appear together, advance 
together, fail together, disappear to- 
gether. 

Material secretions, movements, and 
groupings are not thought. 

Complete unlikeness of physical and 
mental phenomena. 



22 



Physical energy shown in aggregation, 
movement, and force that is never 
correllated or transformed into 
thought or immateriality. 

Every real thing must be supposed to 
continue in existence until annihi- 
lated. 

Materialism is opposed to sensationalism 
and empiricism since it deducts all 
mental states from physical structure. 

Materialism is disproven by: 

1. The organization of matter. 

2. The facts of consciousness. 

3. Its lack of moral constructive power. 

4. Its unfitness to produce or provide 

for the essentially spiritual joys. 

Mr. Tyndall: 

"The passage from the physics of the brain 
to the corresponding facts of consciousness 
is unthinkable. Granted that a definite 
thought and a definite molecular action in the 
brain occur simultaneously: we do not possess 
the intellectual organ, nor apparently any 
rudiment of the organ which would enable us 



23 



to pass, by a process of reason, from the one 
phenomenon to the other/' 

Mind in the Order and Purpose of Things. 

Man sees law, order and purpose in the uni- 
verse. He recognizes mind. There is 
thought in the universe which he did not put 
into it, but which he finds in it. That which 
thought perceives and understands is itself 
thought. There is correspondence of mind 
with mind. Over fixed points already in line, 
prediction sights along the range of law and 
foresees the coming event. Mathematical 
laws worked out in intellectual solitude are 
traced objectively in the orbits of the planets. 
The moment of an eclipse is foretold. The 
discovery of a planet is prophesied. The 
world is understandable. That which is in- 
telligible has intelligence in it. If the exist- 
ence, much more the progressive evolution of 
the universe signifies thought. Progress 
means purpose. Advance from lower and 
simpler to higher and more complicated or- 
ganisms, from inanimate to animate, from 
instinct to self-consciousness and choice, from 
brute to man, from cave-dweller to city- 
builder, from barbarism to culture, is pur- 



24 



posive advance. Plan means intelligence. 
Law, order and purpose mean reason. 

22. The proofs of kindred intellectual de- 
sign. 

By the reciprocal uses found in nature. 
By adaptability. 
By law. 
By order. 

1. It is not self-existent as it may 

be annihilated and re-made 
by cause. 

2. Order is universal and particu- 

lar. 

3. The effect of order being the 

same, it must come from a 
similar cause. 

4. From the nature of order, its 

cause must be a unit. 

5. The cause must have power, 

since it acts with force. 

6. It acts with intelligence, and 

must therefore be intellectu- 
al. 

7. It produces: 

Unity. 
Harmony. 



25 



Beauty. 

Evolution. 

Utility. 

8. Greater than order must be its 

maker. 

9. Since order is infinite and 

shows intelligence, its mak- 
er can be. 

10. Mind is the only cause within 

our experience capable of 
operating the law of order 
and of originating design. 
Matter exist, it is explicable 
only as a function of force; 
force is explicable only as a 
matter of mind and will. 

11. Inorganic bodies have no vi- 

tality and may or may not 
be possessed of order or 
bear traces of design. 

12. Organic bodies must be pos- 

sessed of order and vitality. 

13. Plants are possessed of like 

order, but of wide range in 
degrees of vitality. 

14. Animals more than plants are 

possessed of sensation and a 



26 



wide range in degrees of 
ability. 

Man is intellectually capable 

of abstraction. 
Introspection. 
Differentiation. 

Man is thus able to realize: 

Truth. 

Utility. 

Morality. 

Beauty. 

Art. 

Science. 

Two good incentives to 

progress: 

1. Our faculties capable of 

a s c e r t a i ning the 
truth. 

2. Our will free to follow 

the truth. 

The fundamental principles of 
man's character is shown to 
depend upon his observance 
of the conscious obligation 
to responsible order. 



27 



18. The perpetuation of moral 
order and the execution of 
its obligations therefore 
proves man's origin and 
kinship in the highest or- 
ganizing and constructive 
power. 

Observation: 

A survey of nature drives us to one of two 
conclusions, namely: either to the conclusion 
that benevolence is not omnipotent, or to the 
conclusion that omnipotence is not, in our ac- 
ceptation of the term, purely benevolent, un- 
less there is an economic destination of things 
not within the comprehension of man. 

Philosophies concerning relation of soul and 
body: 

I. Monism, both of one material sub- 
stance. 

Materialism, regards the soul as a func- 
tion of matter in motion. 

Idealism admits no other reality than 
ideas, regarding all known objects as 
the products of physical action, and 
the soul as immaterial. It denies the 
physical facts that correspond to sen- 



28 



sations, and teaches that sensation is 
not a proof of anything without. 

Agnosticism claims that the existence 
of a personal deity can neither be as- 
serted nor denied, neither proved nor 
disproved, owing to the necessary 
limits to the human mind. 
2. Dualism asserts that man is constituted 
of two original and independent ele- 
ments, matter and spirit. 

Mysticism preestablished harmony in 
all things, and the direct communica- 
tion of the soul with the divine spirit. 

Dualistic Realism, the clear apprehen- 
sion of the soul by self-consciousness, 
and in a knowledge of the body and 
the world of matter through sense- 
perception. 

Theories propounded in explanation of the 
order of things: 

1. The Theistic, or a Self-sufficient First 

Cause; the contrary of this, which in 
its negative form is Atheistic, in its 
positive form Materialistic, making 
Self-existent Matter the source of all. 

2. The Pantheistic, presenting in a variety 

of forms the theory that God is All. 



2 9 



3. The Polytheistic, that there are many 
Gods. The last need not detain us. 
as it is not vindicated on philosophic 
grounds. 

Theories of the origin of soul: 

1. The analogical theory of emanation 

from the soul of God. 

2. The poetic theory of previous existence. 

3. The faith theory, of direct creation. 

4. The theological theory of transmission 

from the first created man. 

5. The speculative theory of germ-dis- 

semination by monads radicated from 
the divine will. 

6. The scientific theory of epigenesis from 

derivative generation. 

The believer in immortality from the im- 
materiality of the mind, adheres to facts and 
rejects arbitrary hypotheses. It does not pre- 
tend to unravel all the mysteries of soul, de- 
termine its locus, or disbelieve all things be- 
cause it cannot see all things. It is ready to 
confess ignorance when there are no means 
for further knowledge, and holds to faith 
where there is no need of further knowledge. 
Human misery. 



30 



MORAL DISORDER. 
The General and Special Conditions: 

The unhappy are those who lack faith in 
themselves, who do not know what they want, 
who are at variance with nature in the corrod- 
ing conflict of passion and uncertain ideals. 
Nature abhores, above all things, a vacant 
soul, and she seems disposed to let loose upon 
it every poisonous humor, in order that it may 
become untenable to its possessor. 

The evidence of moral disorder may be sum- 
marized under three divisions: 

1. Insubordination of lower motives, as in 

the gratification of natural desires in 
opposition to the guidance of Con- 
science. 

2. The action of impulses which are in 

their nature condemned by Con- 
science, such as envy, selfishness, 
cruelty. 

3. The experience of moral sentiment of 

a kind which can have exercise only 
in a nature disordered, and as a check 
upon the increase of moral disorder, 



3i 



— the sentiment which according to 
its degree of strength is named self- 
disapprobation, — shame, — remorse. 
Moral Disorder arises from: 
Stupidity of apprehension. 
Undeveloped conscience. 
Stultified sympathies. 
Weakened will power. 
Perverted moral feelings. 
Disordered physical influences. 
Disappointed ambitions. 
Uncultured, unnatural or impracti- 
cable ideals. 
Human misery exists in the state: 

1. From the varying executions of law. 

2. The circumstanced social economy of 

the individual. 

3. The nature of unintelligible conditions 

of prosperity and depression. 
In the family: 

1. From its being poorly constituted. 

2. Of insufficient means. 

3. Its unjust arbitrary government. 
In the individual: 

1. His unsymmetrical abilities. 

2. Evil associations. 

3. Vicious education. 



32 



Much of the misery of the world due to the 
belief that Nature will somehow make an ex- 
ception in our favor. That she will somehow 
ease up on her laws when she comes to our 
case. Belief that Nature can or ought to in- 
terfere in the interest of easy living. 

But the forces of Nature and laws of Nature 
each one its own justice, and no other. 

4. Corrosive passions. 

5. Unattainable ambitions. 

6. Inability against the evils of nature; as: 

Helpless miseries of birth and child- 
hood. 

Strife against unnatural conditions as 
shown in: 

1. Deformities of mind and 

body. 

2. Misgrowth from unsatisfied 

physical and moral needs. 
Heat and cold. 
Insects, reptiles and beasts. 
The forces of nature. 

7. Shame and deprivations of physical and 

mental ailments; as: 
Blindness and epilepsy. 
Sickness and disease. 
Famine and contagion. 
Maiming accidents. 



53 



8. The evils of ignorance and social con- 

ditions; as: 

Dishonorable birth. 
Disgraceful passions. 
Drunkenness and cruelty. 
Coarseness and envy. 
Hate and treason. 

9. False notions of honor; as: 

Personal attacks. 
Challenges. 
Fights. 
Lynchings. 

10. Idleness. Enforced; as: ' 

1. In strikes. 

2. Lockouts. 
From indolence; as: 

1. Tramps. 

2. Paupers. 

3. Beggars. 

11. Oppression: 

From inconsiderate employes. 
From monopolists. 

12. Ignorance; as in: 

Superstition. 

Dream-interpretations. 

Clairvoyance. 



34 



13. Environments. Environment affects 

the individual chiefly by modifying 
local or general self-activity. 

1. Self-activity the cause of in- 

dividual progress. 

2. Cause of specific acceleration. 

Is it inherited acceleration? 
Or does Nature favor those 
who use their powers as 
against those with equal 
powers unused? Are use 
and non-use hereditary, or 
not? 

3. Source of happiness. Enjoy- 

ment of life. Misery comes 
from lack of self-activity. 

14. General causes of personal degenera- 

tion: 

1. Ennui, the pressure of exist- 

ence, unvisited by effort. 
Spiritual pauperism a phase 
of decline. Sickness or in- 
jury not necessarily the 
causes of ennui. 

2. Dissipation. — Passions w r hich 

burn and burn out. Decep- 
tions of the senses. These 



35 



subjective imaginary pleas- 
ures followed by horrors 
which are equally subjective. 
Alcoholism; opium; narcot- 
ism; sensuality; trances. 
Pessimism largely result of 
affected sensorium. 

3. Slavery. — Dragging down of 
effort without the element of 
consent. No virtue in hard 
work, but work to a pur- 
pose. Work without a pride 
in it tends to degradation. 

4. Old age. 

5. Evil associations. 

6. Arrested development. 

Natural selection destroys those who find 
no pleasure in action; by eliminating the vic- 
tims of ennui, dissipation, or slavery. 

No w r ay to make humanity happier, except 
to make humanity stronger and better. If 
humanity has something to do, and does it 
with a pride in its work, it will be reasonably 
happy. Train those we have, and let heredity 
repeat the best, and not the worst. Slums 
breed slums; idlers and criminals are not the 



36 



stock from which the men of the future may 
spring. 

Charity consists in making men better 
adapted to environment, not in easing up the 
environment around individual men. 

13. Political evils; as in: 

War. 

Preservation of national integrity. 

Despotism. 

Favoritism. 

Misrule. 

14. Social evils; as in: 

Religious controversies. 
Caste by birth. 
Pampered by wealth. 

15. Monetary evils; as in: 

Penuriousness and wastefulness. 
Deception and dishonesty. 
Gambling and thievery. 

16. Homicide as done justly or unjustly 

by: 
War. 

Execution of law. 
Defense of Rights. 
Accident. 
Insanity. 



37 



Malice. 

Necessity. 

Desire for money. 

1. In the slow process of depri- 

vations. 

2. By personal mistreatment. 

3. By assassination. 

17. Despair and suicide in communities 
through: 

1. Poverty. 

Pauperism can be exterminated, as swamps 
are drained; not by giving, but by removal of' 
causes. Remedies: Destruction of the slums 
and their social gangrene; closing outdoor re- 
lief; checking feeding of vagabonds, and in- 
discriminate giving; saving the children from 
evil associations, providing means of educa- 
tion, and affording self-supporting employ- 
ment. 

2. Crime. Economic causes. 

I. Failure in productive industry. 

Reform is effected by improving facilities 
for making a living honestly. 

Poverty is not conductive to crime except 
as it is a deprivation of wants formerly en- 
joyed in plenty. 



38 



2. Insecurity of labor. 

3. Minimizing of wages. 

4. Demoralizing environments of labor 

in many industries. 

5. Unsanitary housing. 

6. Poor nutrition. 

7. Bad domestic economy. 

8. Saloons as loafing places. 

9. The curse of drink. 

First Generation — Alcoholic excesses, mor- 
al degeneracy, brutalization. 

Second Generation — Hereditary habitual 
drunkenness, attacks of mania, softening of 
the brain. 

Third Generation — Hypochondria, melan- 
cholia, suicide, homicide. 

Fourth Generation — Imbecility, idiocy, 
sterility and the extinction of the species. 

10. Luck superstitions; as seen in: 

Speculations. 
Betting. 
Gambling. 
Lotteries. 

Scheming enterprises. 

11. Display and extravagance. 

12. Restaurant life instead of the home. 

13. Breadwinning by mothers. 



39 



14- Child labor. 

15. . The slums. 

16. Dishonesty in public officers. 

Misery from offences against life: 

1. Those against person. 
Corporal injuries. 
Compulsion; as: 

1. Confinement. 

2. Banishment. 

3. Robbery. 

4. Extortion. 

2. Those against reputation. 
Innuendo. 
Defamation. 
Villification. 

3. Those against property; as: 
Insolvency. 

Wrongful investment. 
Wrongful occupation. 
Embezzlement. 
Defraudment. 
Delinquency. 

4. Those against conditions; as in: 
The legal institutions of: 

1. Master and servant. 

2. Guardian and ward. 



40 



The natural relations of: 

1. Parent and child. 

2. Husband and wife. 

Misery from the constitutional evil of person: 

1. In morbid appetites as diseased from 

nature. 

2. Tendencies from misuse in infancy. 

3. The vitiated senses of youth. 
Inordinate desire for present pleasure. 
The misunderstanding and misuse of 

bad example. 
False ideas from unsound judgment. 
Licentious imagination. 
Unmindfulness of the future. 

4. Morbid emotions as shown in suscepti- 

bility to: 
Anger and hatred. 
Obstinacy and revenge. 
Envy and pride. 
Suspicion and jealousy. 
Passive remorse and despair. 

5. Morbid desires as shown in: 
Spite and retaliation. 
Ignoble pleasures. 



41 



Covetousness that: 

1. Appropriates the property of 

others. 

2. Requires excessive toll. 

3. Serves the means as the end, in 

which there is no intrinsic 
value. 

The results and penalties of all moral disorder 
are in: 

1. Social disappointments. 

2. Personal distress. 

3. Physical neglect. 

4. Individual debasement. 

5. Ruined hopes. 

6. Disordered ambitions leading to 

worse results. 

7. Lost faith. 

8. Banishment from moral society. 

9. Unrest and mental anguish. 

10. Disease, insanity and miserable death. 

Human misery, the cosmic: 

1. Birth. 

2. Battle with elements misgrowths, fam- 

ine, heat, cold, floods, hail, earth- 
quakes, etc. 



42 



3. Corporal Diseases, etc. 

4. Death. 

Anthropological: 

Dishonorable birth, hereditary ailments, 
passions, suicide, idleness, ignorance, false be- 
liefs, despair, superstition. 

Sociological: 

War, tyrany, inequality, etc. 

The problems of sociology are primary and 
secondary. In the first class fall the problems 
of social structure and growth; in the second, 
the problems of social progress, law and 
cause. The first class is subdivided, one 
group consisting of problems of description, 
the other of problems of history. In the de- 
scriptive group problems of the social popula- 
tion are considered — aggregation, associa- 
tion, social character and classes. Four stages 
of social synthesis are recognized. After ag- 
gregation and association comes the evolu- 
tion of the social mind, then the social com- 
position, and finally the social constitution. 
Corresponding with these are four stages of 
sequence — the zoogenic, the anthropogenic, 
the ethnogenic and the demogenic. To desig- 
nate these stages, the abstract terms sociality, 



43 



propriety, institutionality and ideality are em- 
ployed, and conventionality is added to make 
the correspondence complete with stages of 
historical evolution. The principal secondary 
problems are those of the interplay of social 
forces and motives, the nature and forms of 
volitional association, and of its reactions 
upon social character and activity. 

Human Happiness: 

The happy are those who possess their own 
souls, whose attitude toward life and their fel- 
low-men is firmly chosen and faithfully pre- 
served. This mastery can only be attained 
through the liberal development of that spec- 
ial aptitude or faculty which nature has im- 
planted in each man for the purposes of self- 
expression and the service of his kind. 



44 



MORAL ORDER. 

The General and Special Conditions: 

Moral order may be defined broadly as the 
bodies. 

natural state of all material and organized 
It leads to individual well-being and gen- 
eral happiness. 

1. In the delectable sensitiveness of mind 

to the true, the beautiful, and the 
good. 

2. In the temperate gratification of moral 

desire limited by capability and the 
consequences to self, friends and 
society. 

3. In that enlightened self-love, which is 

infinitely superior to passion and the 
obedient inferior of conscience. 

4. Happiness is poisoned in every viola- 

tion of conscience and truth. 

5. Conscience unsupported and alone is 

insufficient for happiness because: 
There are at times undiscoverable obli- 
gations. 



45 



Consequences cannot always be fore- 
known. 

Relationships that form obligations, are 
discoverable not by conscience but by 
intellect. 

The limitations of gratifications are not 
to be measured by the results wherein 
consequences may or may not be 
amenable to conscience. 

6. Secularist asserts Nature is the only 

subject of knowledge. 
Science is the only providence. 
The affairs of the certain present are 

of more importance than those of the 

uncertain future. 
Life being the first in certainty should 

be the first in importance. 
The fundamentals in human nature are: 

1. Intelligence. 

2. Utility. 

3. Morality. 

7. Natural religion is insufficient for per- 

fection. 

Nature allows no liberty of thought. 
The beauty, order, and mechanism of 
nature, proves it to be a subject. 



46 



Nature is in a constant condition of 
evolution and change from which im- 
perfect and biased judgments are 
made on the causes and results. 

Natural good and evil have been before 
man from the beginning, but his per- 
ceptions of them are not only incom- 
plete, but must continue to be incom- 
plete as long as individual judgment 
is fallible. 

The religious systems of the heathen 
were vicious and those systems arose 
from the interpretations and apotheo- 
sis of the natural and changeful into 
the supernatural and changeless. 

Natural religion teaches only from re- 
sults to the causes and basis its in- 
junctions on the pain that follows the 
wrong. Its only preventions are 
punishments. 

Nature is impartial and pitiless, though 
recuperative as well as destructive. 

John Stuart Mill's arraignment of Nature: 

"Nature impales men, breaks them as if on 
the wheel, casts them to be devoured by wild 
beasts, burns them to death, crushes them 



47 



with stones, like the first Christian martyrs, 
starves them with hunger, freezes them with 
cold, poisons them by the quick or slow 
venom of her exhalations, and has hundreds 
of other hideous deaths in reserve. " 

Forbearance, forgiveness, and restitu- 
tion, the main laws of enlightened 
life, cannot be taught by natural law. 

Happiness comes from exercise of func- 
tions in any grade; overcoming of opposition; 
doing good to others; conquests of mind; love 
of friends. All happiness is positive and 
strengthening. 

8. Happiness is a condition of wisdom in 
the use of means. 
By the enlightened exercise and social 
culture of taste. 

Conditions: 

Equal distribution in all orders of life. 

Vice no advantage over virtue. 
Cardinal Virtues: 

Prudence, fortitude, temperance, justice. 
Towards God: 



48 



Piety, reverence, resignation, gratitude. 
To ourselves: 

Chastity, sobriety, temperance, longevity, 
health. 
To others: 

Justice, charity, fidelity, loyalty. 

The chance of happiness rests upon the de- 
velopment of the individual gift. Let each 
man find out what thing it is that nature 
specially intended him to do, and do it. Work 
is only toil when it is the performance of 
duties for which nature did not fit us, and a 
congenial occupation is only serious play. 

The will in absolute control of: 

1. The appetites. 

2. The affections. 

3. The emotions. 

4. The desires. 

By the use of: 

1. Firmness. 

2. Determination. 

3. Fortitude. 

4. Courage. 

The affections must be honest and true. 



49 



The appetites must harmonize with 

legitimate needs. 
The desires must be right in: 

1. Moral worthiness. 

2. Intellectual force. 

3. Health and vigor. 

4. Circumstantial advantages. 

5. The welfare of friends. 

6. Consideration and solicitation for 

the welfare of mankind in 
order justly to enjoy: 

Life. 

Society. 

Knowledge. 

Esteem. 

Ownership. 

Power. 

The emotions must be calm in: 

1. Pain and grief. 

2. Pleasure and joy. 

3. Irritation and surprise. 

4. Attachment and aversion. 

5. Fear and hope. 

6. Sorrow and disappointment. 

7. Sympathy and pity. 

8. Forgiveness and forbearance. 

9. Penitence and gratitude. 



50 



10. Suspense and mirth. 

11. Curiosity and expectation. 

12. Pride and shame. 

13. Admiration and envy. 

14. Humility and confidence. 

The personal demands of our existence 

toward happiness are to be: 
Physically robust. 

Unblemished in reputation and charac- 
ter. 

Skill in doing. 

Wise in comprehension. 

Successful in a praiseworthy vocation. 
Free from adverse criticism. 
Actuated by right desire. 
Able to achieve good and avoid evil. 

The social demands for happiness are, 
to be: 

Helpful and true to family. 
Generous and inspiring to neighbors. 
Frank and faithful to friends. 
Inoffensive and sensible in personal 
conduct. 

Observant in manners and dress to the 
reasonable forms of ethical etiquette. 

Inspiring in sympathies with the weak, 
the erring and the striving. 



5i 



11. The requirements of trustworthy suc- 

cess are: 
Patience and diligence. 
Faithfulness and honesty. 
Independence and politeness. 
Resolution and energy. 
Skill and discernment. 
Alertness and method. 
Self-control and determination in: 

1. Impulses and emotions. 

2. Excitements and passions. 

12. Sanctions from the sources of pleasure, 

and pain are found in: 
Conditions: 
Physical, 
Political, 
Moral, 
Popular, 
Religious. 

Health. 

1. General hygiene: Rise early, go to 

bed early, and in the meantime keep 
yourself occupied. 

2. Respiratory hygiene: Water and 

bread sustain life, but pure air and 
sunlight are indispensable forhealth. 



52 



3. Gastro-intestinal hygiene: Frugality 

and sobriety are the best elixirs for 
a long life. 

4. Epidermal hygiene: Cleanliness pre- 

serves from rust; the best-kept 
machines last longest. 

5. Sleep hygiene: A sufficiency of rest 

repairs and strengthens; too much 
rest weakens and makes soft. 

6. Clothes hygiene: He is well clothed 

who keeps his body sufficiently 
warm, safeguarding it from all 
abrupt changes of temperature, 
while at the same time maintaining 
perfect freedom of motion. 

7. House hygiene: A house that is clean 

and cheerful makes a happy home. 

8. Moral hygiene: The mind reposes 

and resumes its edge by means of 
relaxation and amusement, but ex- 
cess opens the door to the passions, 
and these attract the vices. 

9. Intellectual hygiene: Gaiety con- 

duces to love of life, and love of life 
is the half of health; on the other 
hand, sadness and gloom help on old 
age. 



io. Professional hygiene: Is it your brain 
that feeds you? Don't allow your 
arms and legs to become stiff. Dig 
for a livelihood, but don't omit to 
furnish your intellect and elevate 
your thought. 

Biological Basis of Society. 

The natural basis of society is biological. 
Society exists as a necessity of our life, in ac- 
cordance with the constitution we have re- 
ceived, the laws of which are above our 
choice. Society is founded, not in Individu- 
alism nor in Associationalism, but in vital 
social organism. 

Cleanliness of mind. 

He who allows any vulgarity of word or 
manner, in that very thing reproaches human- 
ity and degrades his own spirit, and is in that 
an immoral man. 

All obscenity is the grossest degree of vul- 
garity, and can be habitual only in the loss 
of all self-respect and all respect for the men 
with whom he associates. It indicates a base- 
ness of spirit fit for any degrading companion- 
ship in iniquity, and can hardly have been 



54 



attained except by a familiarity with low 
vices. 

Cleanliness of body. 

Filthiness of person, dress and dwelling, is 
a vice in itself, and a reproach and indignity 
to the spiritual being of man; but it also inter- 
feres with the health and perfection of the 
body. 

Social Economics. 

The individual must be healthy in mind, 
body and morals. 

1. The association of the sexes must be 

honest, sincere and wholesome in 
their obligations. 

2. Sexual instincts must not be engend- 

ered or aroused outside of courtship 
continuous into marriage, the obliga- 
tions of which are in: 
Mutual friendship. 
Conjugal affection. 
The family under the protection of whole- 
some influences: 

1. Filial and parental tenderness and solic- 

itude. 

2. Education in the principles of har- 

monial growth. 



55 



3. Culture in self knowledge and moral 

control. 

4. Wisdom in the ways of life. 
Employers and employees must regard 

each other and each other's affairs 
with mutual consideration and jus- 
tice. 

The industrial struggle: 

The number of persons that may be main- 
tained in a given district depends upon: 

1. The original resources. 

2. Advancement of arts and sciences. 

3. Character of people as to physique., in- 

telligence and morality. 

4. Amount of capital. 

It is waged: 

1. Between man and natural forces, as 

plants, animals and the weather. 

2. Between classes, as: 

Employer and employed. 
Rich and the poor. 
Lenders and borrowers. 
Producers and consumers. 

3. Between enterprises. 

4. Between nations. 



56 



It is lessened by: 
Thrift. 
Skill. 

Intelligence. 
Character. 
Reputation. 
Love. 

Family ties. 
Enlightened altruism. 
National prosperity. 
Security for hope. 

Elimination of all wolfish competitions. 
Society must be provident in influencing for 
stronger and more useful individual 
life through: 

1. Fashion and honor. 

2. Charity and esteem. 

3. Social reward. 

4. Moral conditions. 

Communal welfare is reached through the 
rights and right use of things. 

1. The real in: 
Kinds and tenures. 
Estates and titles. 

2. The personal: 

By general distribution invested rights. 



57 



In titles secured through: 

1. Occupancy and custom. 

2. Succession and marriage. 

3. Judgment and gift. 

4. Contract and testament. 

5. Administration. 

3. Just ownership by: 
Prescription and accession. 
Gift and legacy. 
Inheritance and wages. 
Usufructuary production. 
Manufacture and interest. 
Damage recovered. 
Wager won. 

Sale and exchange. 
Treasure trove 
Preoccupancy and rents. 
Salvage and capture. 
Deposit and suretyship. 
Lapse and mandate. 

4. Law properly administered: 
Private and local. 

Civil and commercial. 
Administrative and ecclesiastical. 
Penal and justicial. 
Maritine and martial. 
Constitutional and international. 



58 



National welfare is reached and maintained: 

1. As to foreign affairs: 
Honorable reciprocity. 
Integrities maintained. 
Defences secure. 

2. As to domestic conditions: 
Industries of soil and factory. 
Education of the people through: 

1. Schools. 

2. Churches. 

3. Social clubs. 

4. Theaters. 

5. The press. 

6. Society. 

Good civil government. 

Wholesome restrictive laws. 
The rights of individuals. 

1. Absolute security in all personal 

and social possessions. 

2. Liberty in the pursuit of moral 

happiness and lawful prosper-* 
ity. 

3. The relative public rights. 
To establish government. 
To share in government. 

To be protected by government. 



59 



To discriminate between citizens 
and aliens when the contin- 
gency requires. 

4. The relative private rights of: 
Parent and child. 
Guardian and ward. 
Master and servant. 
Husband and wife. 

5. The relative personal privileges 

of: 

Sumptuary affairs. 

Belief and worship. 

Influence and speech. 

Conscience and judgment. 
The character, ambition and work of in- 
dividuals and associations for themselves or 
for the advancement of moral conduct and 
knowledge. 

Teachings of Buddha: 

1. Existence not separable from misery. 

2. Misery results from unsatisfied desire. 

3. Perfection reached by quenching de- 

sire. 

4. Four steps to the quenching of desire: 
Comprehension of evil. 
Destruction of impure feelings. 
Serenity of soul. 



6o 



In the consideration of these things, let us 
cultivate a mood of the utmost spiritual open- 
ness. ' Let us not be exacting with life, nor 
demand too much of the present hour. Let 
us be content if we lay up for ourselves treas- 
ures of fruitful memory; for there is an 
alchemy in the imagination which can brew 
pleasure out of the most unpromising mate- 
rial, and gleams of a curious sunshine will 
some day fall even upon the recollection of 
our darkest miseries. 



6i 



IMMORTALITY. 

This is defined as meaning exemption from 
death; the state of everlasting life. The 
dogma of the immortality of the soul is very 
ancient. It is connected with almost all re- 
ligions, though under an infinite variety of 
conceptions. By the immortality of the soul 
we understand the endless continuation of our 
personality, our consciousness, and will. 
There are so many reasons to render immor- 
tality probable, that with most nations the 
belief is as clear and firm as the belief in a 
God; in fact, the two dogmas are intimately 
connected in the minds of most men. The 
hope of immortality must be considered a re- 
ligious conviction. Reason and religion com- 
mand man to strive for continued perfection. 
This duty man cannot relinquish without 
abandoning at the same time his whole dig- 
nity as a reasonable being and a free agent. 
He must therefore expect that a continuation 
of his better part, as the necessary condition 
for his progress in perfection, will not be 
denied to him. Hence the belief in immor- 



62 



tality becomes intimately connected with our 
belief in the existence and goodness of God. 
Among rude peoples the life after death is 
usually regarded as a state of being not essen- 
tially different from the present — one in which 
the hunter shall renew his chase, and his cor- 
poreal senses shall have their accustomed 
gratifications. Among the ancient Greeks 
and Romans the spirits of the dead were be- 
lieved to live in the other world as a sort of 
shadows, and the life after death was also 
considered as a shadow of the present. 
Among some peoples the imagination at- 
tributes changes of condition to the future 
life, and the doctrine of transmigration, or the 
progress of the mind or soul in different 
stages, is developed. Connected with the belief 
in the immortality of the soul is the belief in 
a state here souls are purified after death, as 
existing among the Egyptians and many 
Christians. 

"If a man die, shall he live again ?" is a 
question which has naturally agitated the 
heart and stimulated the intellectual curiosity 
of man wherever he has risen above a state 
of barbarism and commenced to exercise his 
intellect at all. The religion of all civilized 



people may be said more or less to recognize 
the affirmative of the question, although often 
under very vague and materialistic forms. In 
the ancient Egyptian religion the idea of I. 
first assumes a definite shape. There is a 
clear recognition of a dwelling-place of the 
dead and of a future judgment. In the 
Zoroastrian religion the future world, with its 
governing spirits, plays a prominent part. 
Whoever has lived in purity, and has not 
suffered the divs ("evil spirits") to have any 
power over him, passes after death into the 
realms of light. In the early Grecian pagan- 
ism Hades, or the realms of the dead, is the 
emblem of gloom to the Hellenic imagina- 
tion. It is only in Christianity, however, that 
this higher life is clearly revealed. The aspira- 
tions of philosophy and the conceptions of 
mythology are found in the Gospel trans- 
muted into an authoritative influence govern- 
ing and directing the present life. 
The Soul. 

The Scholastics, following Aristotle, mean 
by soul the primary principle of life, and by 
living things all such as have the capacity of 
motion from within. Thus, a stone has no 
life, and therefore no soul, because it does not 



64 



move but is moved by forces external to itself; 
while, on the other hand, vegetables, beasts, 
and men have all souls. A plant, for example, 
unlike inorganic substances, has the power, so 
long as it lives, of absorbing moisture and of 
assimilating it by the activity of its organs. 
Brutes have the same power, and add to it 
that of sense; while the soul of man is at once 
vegetative, sensitive, and rational. 

In respect to his vegetative and animal 
functions man does not differ essentially from 
the lower animals, but whereas the soul of 
brutes is a principle which can only exist in 
matter and only operates in union with it, ,the 
human soul, though it also exists in and 
operates through matter, "has, nevertheless, 
an existence apart from matter and an opera- 
tion in which the body takes no part" (Kleut- 
gen). The Schoolmen find the proof of such 
immateriality in the power which the mind 
has of forming abstract and immaterial ideas. 
And although this immaterial or spiritual cha- 
racter of the soul and the freedom of the will 
are taught by faith, they may also be certain- 
ly proved by reason. 

The three classes into which the functions 
of the soul naturally fall led some to assert the 



65 



existence of three distinct souls — vegetative, 
animal, and rational. In the middle of the 
ninth century the question assumed theologi- 
cal importance, and Photius excited great op- 
position by his doctrine that man had two 
souls — one rational, one irrational — and that 
the latter only sinned. 

The Schoolmen speak of the soul as the 
substantial form of the body. By the substan- 
tial form they understand that principle by 
which a thing is constituted in its proper 
species, that which makes it what it essentially- 
is. They appeal to the unity of nature testi- 
fied by consciousness and acknowledged in 
the common language of mankind. We ex- 
press our consciousness of our own unity 
when we say, "I feel," "I reason/' "I will." 
It is not, as Aristotle remarks, so correct to 
say "My eye sees" as "I see through the eye." 
Further, we are conscious that we who con- 
sider and resolve carry out our resolution 
through the bodily limbs. Our faculties, in- 
deed, are different, but all proceed from one 
common principle of life, which makes each 
of us a single being. 

Origen held with Plato that souls existed 
before they were united to the body. A few 



66 



held that the soul of men was produced, like 
that of brutes, by natural generation, no spe- 
cial power being attributed to the souls of the 
parents, except so far as the soul is the ani- 
mating principle of the body. 

Augustine found it hard to defend himself 
against the Pelagians on the theory that the 
soul w T as immediately created by God. If the 
soul came straight from God, how could it 
come stained with original sin? 

In the language of spiritualistic philoso- 
phers, soul covers the w r hole region of mind, 
and is generally conceived of as a naturally 
imperishable entity, in relation with the body, 
but definable, for the most part, only in terms 
of the complete negation of material attri- 
butes. With this the popular conception in 
the main coincides, though it is less labored 
and considerably less negative. In its original 
signification the word appears to have stood 
for the principle of life, both in men and in an- 
imals. The modes of conceiving it w r ere vari- 
ous; it was sometimes regarded as the mere 
harmony of the bodily functions, and some- 
times as a distinct entity of highly ethereal 
nature, and generally supposed to be seated 
in, or connected with, the blood; but no essen- 



67 



tial distinction was made between the soul of 
man and the soul of brutes. Very soon, how- 
ever, the manifest superiority of man to the 
lower creation suggested difficulties, which 
were increased as the thought of an after-life, 
in a different sense from transmigration, was 
gradually developed. And in man the con- 
stant war among his members, the opposition 
of passion and reason, as it began to be ob- 
served with the growing habit of introspec- 
tion, called for some explanation which 
should apply to humanity only. To meet all 
such difficulties a "Trichotomy," or threefold 
division of the human constitution, was as- 
sumed, according, to which a naturally im- 
mortal and rational element was supposed to 
make part of man, besides the animal soul 
(always variously conceived) which he shared 
with the brutes. 

In its original meaning, the word soul de- 
noted simply a present fact, or the impression 
conveyed to the speaker by certain phenom- 
ena which he was contemplating. In has now 
no reference either to the source of this facul- 
ty or life, or to its ultimate duration, whether 
here or in any other state of existence. The 
history of language carries us back to a time 



68 



during which men existed without any con- 
sciousness of kinship, marriage, or law, or of 
their relation to a Being who was their Maker. 
The first formation of the ideas of father, 
mother, wife, and brethren, the growth of the 
numerals, of words like duty, right, love, of 
the idea of creator, ruler, and father of men, 
seem to mark severally a stage in the revela- 
tions made to mankind. How soon these 
words began to convey ideas similar to those 
which we now attach to them, it is impossible 
to say; but it is quite certain that the word 
soul assumed gradually the meaning of a liv- 
ing, thinking, or conscious power; and equal- 
ly certain, also, that while some held this 
power to be indestructible, others either de- 
nied this conclusion, or rested content with- 
out any conclusion on the subject. In other 
words, the belief in the inherent immortality 
of the human soul, although by some affirmed 
to be an innate conviction in the human mind, 
has not been accepted at all times or in all 
countries. In the Aristotelian philosophy; the 
idea of a future or continued existence after 
death, can scarcely be said to have a place. His 
system of ethics is simply a part of his great 
theory of politics; and his morality is confined, 



6g 



therefore, essentially to present condi- 
tions. The Platonic philosophy, or the So- 
cratic, if we may suppose that on this subject 
the disciple faithfully represented the master, 
introduces us to a wholly different phase of 
thought. The idea of duty, as based on re- 
sponsibility to an unseen, but absolutely im- 
partial, judge, runs through the great dia- 
logue entitled the Gorgias. The belief, if 
grounded in part on metaphysical arguments, 
rests chiefly on a profound internal convic- 
tion. After death comes the judgment; and 
as the tree falls, so it lies. As the corpse re- 
tains the features seen in life, with any marks 
or scars which may have been made on the 
body, so the soul retains its spiritual features, 
with the wounds or scars which may have 
been caused by unjust actions. The soul dis- 
missed from the body are brought before 
Rhadamanthus the judge, who knows not to 
w T hom they belong, and whose impartiality 
therefore cannot be called into question. 
And the souls of kings, rulers, and statesmen 
are thus submitted to a trial, at the end of 
which sentence is passed according to the 
condition in which they are found. Those 
which are found unscarred go to the islands of 



70 



the blessed; while all who are wounded and 
distorted from the effects of tyranny, intem- 
perance, sloth, or lying, are dismissed to the 
prison-house, where they are to receive due 
punishment. The souls so dismissed are di- 
vided into two classes, the curable and ihe in- 
curable; for punishment must either be for the 
reformation of the offender, or as a warning 
to others. For all, therefore, who have not 
sinned incurably, the punishment of Hades 
becomes a purgatorial process; and in this 
class are placed the souls of private citizens 
who have never been invested with great 
power or responsibility. According to the 
Platonic Socrates, it is impossible for such in- 
significant persons to commit incurable sins, 
this terrible privilege being reserved for des- 
pots, unjust kings, and iniquitous rulers of 
whatever kind. Thus, for the vast mass of 
men, the punishments of the unseen world 
issue in reformation and final happiness. The 
Platonic belief was adopted by Cicero, who 
sums up in his treatise, De Senectute, the 
metaphysical arguments on which belief in the 
immortality of the soul has been based. But 
neither in the time of Cicero, nor at any other 
period of Roman history, can it be said that 



7* 



there was a general belief in the inherent im- 
motality of the soul. In modern times, while 
it has become the habit of many to appeal to 
the universal consent of mankind as evidence 
for the inherent immortality of man, both this 
appeal and the metaphysical arguments on 
which this belief is maintained are confronted 
by a system of philosophy, sometimes called 
materialistic, which sees in human life the ex- 
pression of forces dependent on certain ma- 
terial combinations, and which, asserting that 
consciousness is the result of that combina- 
tion, affirms that with the dissolution of that 
combination the conscious life will also be at 
an end It would be out of place here to enter 
into the vast field of observation thus opened. 
While the idea of inherent immortality is gen- 
erally maintained by Christian theologians, 
there are some who share the belief of the 
Anglican archbishop Whately, that immor- 
tality is a gift reserved only for those who 
shall be found worthy of it, the eternal death 
spoken of in the New Testament being the 
final extinction of the sinner, and not his con- 
tinued existence in a state of endless torment. 



72 



MIND. 

This is a term that admits of no exhaustive 
scientific definition, but may be said to indi- 
cate, generally, the power possessed by each 
of us in virtue of which we know, think, feel, 
and will. 

'''When the mind," says Locke, "turns its 
view inwards upon itself, thinking is the first 
idea that occurs; wherein it observes a great 
variety of modifications, whence it frames to 
itself distinct ideas. Thus, the perception an- 
nexed to any impression on the body by an 
external object is called sensation; when an 
idea recurs without the presence of the object, 
it is called remembrance; when sought after 
by the mind, and again brought into view, it 
is recollection; when the ideas are taken 
notice of, and, as it were, registered in the 
memory, it is attention; when the mind fixes 
its view on any one idea, and considers it on 
all sides, it is called study." 

Mind contains three elementary constitu- 
ents — Emotion or Feeling, Volition or the 
Will, and Intelligence or Thought. The in- 
tellectual powers are explained in part by 
their contrast with feeling and will. When we 



73 



enjoy pleasure or suffer pain, we are said to 
feel ; when we act to procure the one or avoid 
the other we put forth voluntary energy ; when 
we remember, compare, reason, our intelli- 
gence is exerted. The powers of the intellect 
have been variously classified. Among the 
commonly recognized designations for them 
we may mention Memory, Reason, and Im- 
agination, which imply three very distinct 
applications of our mental forces. Read class- 
ified them as follows-: Perception by the 
Senses, Memory, Conception, Abstraction,- 
Judgment, Reasoning. Stewart added Con- 
sciousness, to denote the power of recogniz- 
ing our mental states, as Sensation and Per- 
ception make us cognizant of the outer world; 
likewise Attention, (although exerted in the 
domain of intelligence), Imagination, and the 
Association of Ideas. It might be* easily 
shown that in such a classification as the 
above, there is no fundamental distinctness of 
function, although there may be some differ- 
ences in the direction given to the powers. 
There is not a faculty of Memory which is all 
memory, and nothing but memory. Reason 
and Imagination equally involve processes of 
recollection. And with regard to the Associ- 



74 



ation of Ideas, it has been shown by Mr. Sam- 
uel Bailey that if this is to be introduced into 
the explanation of the Intellect, it must super- 
sede the other faculties entirely; in short, we 
must proceed either by faculties (as Memory, 
Reason, etc.), or by Association, but not by 
both. Sir William Hamilton, in departing 
from the common classification of the Intel- 
lect, adopted the following division into six 
faculties or powers: (i) The Presentative 
Faculty, by which he meant the power of rec-~ 
ognizing the various aspects of the world 
without and the Mind within, called in the 
one case External Perception, in the other 
Self-consciousness, and sometimes Reflection, 
(2) The Conservative Faculty, or Memory 
proper, meaning the power of storing up im- 
pressions, to be afterward reproduced as 
occasion requires. (3) The Reproduc- 
tive Faculty, or the means of calling 
the dormant, impressions up into con- 
sciousness again. These means are, as 
stated above, the Associating Principles. (4) 
The Representative Faculty, for which Imag- 
ination is another name, w r hich determines the 
greater or less vividness of the impressions or 
ideas thus reproduced. (5) The Elaborative 



75 



Faculty, or the power of Comparison, by 
which Classification, Generalization, Abstrac- 
tion, and Reasoning are performed. This, in 
fact, is one (not the only) application of the 
general power of Similarity. Lastly, (6) The 
Regulative Faculty, or the cognition of the 
a priori or supposed instinctive notions of the 
Intellect, as Space, Time, Cessation, Neces- 
sary Truths, etc. This corresponds to what 
in German philosophy is called the "Reason," 
as contrasted with ''Understanding/' which 
deals with experienced or contingent truth.' 
Mind can be resolved into nothing more fund- 
amental than itself; and, therefore, our plan 
must be to call attention to those individual 
facts or experiences that are pointed at by the 
name, and to circumscribe, in some way or 
other, the whole field of such experiences. 
For an example of Mind we should probably 
refer each person to his pleasures and pains, 
which are a class of things quite apart and pe- 
culiar; we should also indicate thoughts or 
ideas, as mental elements; also exercises of 
will or voluntary action. There is a sufficient 
Community of nature in those various ele- 
ments to cause them to be classed by them- 
selves, under a common designation, viz., 



76 



Mind. If anyone could be made aware of all 
the phenomena that have received this desig- 
nation, he would, of course, know the mean- 
ing in the detail; but this is not enough. Mind 
being a general or comprehensive name, w r e 
ought to see distinctly the common character 
or attribute pervading all those particular 
character is the knowledge of Mind in general 
or the determination of its defining attribute. 
For the settling of this common attribute we 
have another great resource, besides compar- 
ing the individual facts; i. e., to determine the 
opposite, or contrast, of Mind. Now the usual- 
ly assigned contrast is matter; but, more pre- 
cisely, it is extension. or the extended, includ- 
ing both inert matter and empty space. When 
we are conscious of any thing as having the 
property of Extension, our consciousness is 
occupied with the object world, or something 
that is not Mind. When we are feeling pleasure 
or pain, remembering, or willing, we are not 
conscious of any thing extended; we are said 
to be in a state of subjective consciousness; 
or to be exhibiting aphenomenaof Mindprop- 
er. Hence, philosophers are accustomed to 
speak of the inextended Mind, as distinguished 
from the outer or object world. In one sense 



77 



every thing that we can take cognizance of 
is Mind or self; we cannot by any possibility 
transcend our own mental sphere; whatever 
we know is own own Mind; hence the idealism 
of Berkeley, which seemed to annihilate the 
whole external universe. But this large sense 
of Mind is not what is usually meant, and what- 
ever view we take of the reality of the exter- 
nal world, we must never merge the distinc- 
tion between the consciousness of the Ex- 
tended — which is also coupled with other 
truly object properties, as inertia, for matter 
— and the consciousness of the Inextended, as 
constituting our feelings and thoughts. 

FAITH. 

This means belief or trust in a fact or doc- 
trine, and is more especially used to express 
the belief of Christians in the tenets of their 
religion, and also by figure to mean that re- 
ligion itself. The great divisions of Chris- 
tianity, the Roman, the Greek, the Reformed 
or Calvinist, the Episcopal English, the Inde- 
pendents, and the Protestant or Lutheran 
churches, have each separate confessions of 
faith, but they all acknowledge the great 
fundamental points of the Christian faith or 



78 



religion, namely, the inspiration of the Scrip- 
tures, and the divinity of Jesus Christ^ In the 
earlier ages of the Church the chief contro- 
versies of theologians, especially in the East, 
ran upon metaphysical questions concerning 
the mysteries of the Trinity, the Incarnation, 
and the divine nature of the Savior. In mod- 
ern times controversy has run more frequent- 
ly upon moral questions concerning the con- 
duct of men, the requisites of salvation, and 
the discipline of the Church. Faith, the nec- 
essity of which is acknowledged by all Chris- 
tians, has been view r ed in various lights with 
respect to its efficacy. From the earliest ages 
the Church has taught that faith, or belief in 
the Redeemer, joined with good works, was 
necessary for the justification of man; that 
good works, that is, works acceptable to God, 
could only be produced by the Spirit of God 
influencing the heart, but that the human will 
must co-operate with grace in producing 
them, though the human will alone is power- 
less to good unless assisted by divine grace. 
Still, man being a free agent, the will can call 
on God, through the merits of the Savior, for 
a measure of His grace to assist its own ef- 
forts. Thus the co-operation of God and 



79 



man was held as the means of the justification 
and salvation of the latter. Luther, however, 
and Calvin, denied the power of the will to 
call on God for his grace; they substituted 
faith, and faith alone, in the merits of the Re- 
deemer, as the means of salvation, by which 
faith man firmly believes that his sins are at 
once remitted. But this faith must be sin- 
cere, absolute, without, a shadow 7 of doubt or 
distrust; and as man cannot of himself obtain 
this, it can only be given to him by inspiration 
of the Spirit of God. Here the question of 
faith becomes involved with those of grace and 
predestination. As for our works, both 
Luther and Calvin look upon them as abso- 
lutely worthless for our salvation. Some fan- 
atics, and the Anabaptists among the rest, 
drew from these premises of the leading re- 
formers some very dangerous consequences, 
which Luther and Calvin had not anticipated, 
such as that men might live as profligately as 
they pleased, and yet, by the inspiration of 
divine grace, might obtain the faith requisite 
for their salvation. 

The opinions of Luther and Calvin on the 
subject of faith and predestination have been 
since considerably modified by many Protest- 



8o 



ant divines, who have admitted that the will 
of man must co-operate in order to obtain the 
grace necessary for justification. The Roman 
Catholic church admits the merit of good 
works and repentance, united with faith, for 
the purpose of salvation. But then, it re- 
quires an absolute faith in all the decisions of 
its general councils in matters of dogma, 
without the least liberty of investiga- 
tion on the part of the laity, and 
without any doubt, for doubt itself 
is held to be sinful. The Reformed and 
Protestant churches, generally speaking, hold 
faith in the fundamental dogmas of Christian- 
ity as an essential requisite for salvation. An 
act of divine faith is the undoubting assent 
given to revealed truths, not because of the 
evidence which can be produced for them, but 
simply because they are revealed by God. 
Thus the truths which faith accepts are not 
evident in themselves, or if evident, as is the 
case with the truths of natural religion, are 
not accepted with divine faith, because so evi- 
dent. 

Divine faith excludes all doubt So much 
is implied in the very word, for nobody would 
say that we put faith in a man's statement if 
we doubted its truth. 



8i 



BELIEF. 

This is that state of mind in which one ac- 
quiesces in some truth, real or supposed. No 
doubt, every man in the world who believes in 
anything, even the most superstitious idea 
that ever found credence, does so because he 
has some kind of a vague perception that the 
object of his belief is real and true. But the 
act of belief in itself has puzzled the wise, 
throughout all ages, exactly to describe its 
character. One man alleges the act is intel- 
lectual, another says it is moral, a third affirms 
that it is emotional, and a fourth, who is likely 
as near the truth as any of the previous three, 
avers that it bears all those various characters 
at different times, and when applied to differ- 
ent subjects. First it is intellectual, then it is 
moral, anon it is emotional; and it is as easy 
to describe it as it is to give a definition of in- 
stinct or of intuition. The reason of this ap- 
parent obscurity in the meaning of this word, 
is, because men have no more general term 
that they are accustomed to apply to the same 
object. It is, accordingly, impossible to get 
behind belief, so as intelligibly to describe its 
character. It is emphatically "the light of all 
our seeing/' There are, properly, four sources 



82 



from which the sound beliefs of men 
are made up: — ist, there is intuition, 
or instinct; 2d, there is our ordinary ex- 
perience; 3d, there are our scientific 
convictions, derived from the exercise 
of the two sources of knowledge, deduction 
and induction; 4th, there is testimony. These 
constitute the sources of our real convictions; 
hut feeling and imagination have a great 
share in giving rise to illusory notions and 
superstitious beliefs in the minds of men. 
Man is responsible for every belief, real or 
illusory, which he maintains, provided, al- 
ways, it were possible for him to discipline 
himself properly in the various kinds of 
knowledge, in which he exercises his belief, 
This arises from the fact that we all have 
power over our minds in directing them to 
one object or another of study; and if this act, 
w T hich is admitted on all hands to be volun- 
tary, be really so, for every voluntary act we 
commit, either directly or indirectly we are 
entirely responsible. Belief is, no doubt, in- 
direct in its connection with the conscience, 
but it is not, therefore, wholly irresponsible. 



83 



MATERIALISM. 

This is a term applied to any philosophical 
system which denies the existence of a spirit- 
ual or immaterial principle in man, called the 
mind or soul, distinct from matter, or which 
(changing the phrase) denies the immaterial- 
ity of the soul. The name is applied to sys- 
tems which differ very widely from one an- 
other, in respect of the consequences deduced 
from the denial of the soul's immateriality; 
and thus it comes to pass that the popular 
meaning of the word has become loose and 
incorrect, comprehending what are no better 
than accidental consequences of the pure and 
proper idea. Such accidental consequences 
are the denial of a future state and absolute 
atheism; and it need not be said that atheism 
and materialism are treated in current con- 
versation as convertible expressions. 

The name materialism also is one of that 
sort for which Mr. Bentham has constructed 
the epithet dyslogistic. As applied in current 
conversation, it always carries with it censure. 
This arises, of course, from the nature of the 
accidental consequences which have been in- 



84 



dicated, and which mankind regard with 
horror; but inasmuch as the name still con- 
tinues to be applied to systems from which 
unchristian and atheistical consequences are 
expressly excluded, and even to some systems 
(such as that of Hartley) which admit the ex- 
istence of a separate soul, but in whose 
method of explaining mental phenomena 
there is a dash of materialism, the censure 
that has come to be indissolubly associated 
with the name often falls with grevious injus- 
tice. Indeed, there is hardly a single word in 
the whole range of philosophic terminology 
better fitted to exemplify the evils of loose- 
ness of application, or of allowing feelings to 
tinge and discolour the notions conveyed by 
names. 

The systems to which the name materialism 
is applied may be roughly distributed under a 
threefold division. First, it is applied (as has 
been already said) to a system like that of 
Hartley, which admits the existence of a soul, 
but which, attempting to explain mental 
phenomena physically or by movements aris- 
ing out of the bodily organization, seems to 
imply materialism. Secondly, it is applied to 



85 



the systems of Hobbes and Priestley, and of 
the French school of writers, of which De la 
Mettrie may be taken as a specimen, which 
distinctly deny the existence of a soul as a 
separate principle in man, but which do not 
deny either God or a future state. In the sys- 
tems of these writers is evolved the pure and 
proper idea of materialism, divested of all un- 
necessary consequences. Thirdly and lastly, 
the name is applied to systems like that of the 
ancient Epicureans, which deny both a future 
state of rewards and punishments and a Di- 
vine Creator, systems for which atheism 
would be a better name, inasmuch as material- 
ism fails to denote their more important and 
distinctive ingredients. 

The following is a brief summary of the 
views of Dr. Priestley, who has more formally 
than any other writer enunciated the princi- 
ples of materialism in the pure and proper 
sense of the word. He denies the existence 
of a separate immaterial principle in man, 
called the mind or soul, because he thinks that 
an immaterial principle could not exist in 
union with the material body, and because he 
thinks, further, that all mental phenomena (as 



86 



they are called) may be explained by means of 
supposed movements arising out of the bodily 
organization. The method by which he thus 
explains mental phenomena is that of Hart- 
ley. Adopting this philosopher's hypothesis 
of medullary vibrations, he defines mental 
phenomena as medullary vibrations per- 
ceived; and he contends, principally from the 
analogy of brutes, that bodily organization is 
adequate to produce perception. Thus, and 
by means of such hypothesis, does he dispense 
with the hypothesis of a separate immaterial 
soul. But, denying the existence of a soul, 
separate from the body, and capable of sur- 
viving when the body perishes, he does not 
yet deny the immortality of man, and a future 
state of rewards and punishments. On the 
contrary, he distinctly affirms these on the 
authority of Scripture. It is needless to add 
that Dr. Priestley does not deny the existence 
of a God. 

One word more on the absurdity of coup- 
ling the denial of a future state with the denial 
of an immaterial soul, and of making atheism 
synonymous with materialism. To deny a ma- 
terial soul is necessarily to deny an immortal 



soul, but not therefore to deny an immortal 
man. And even to deny the existence of 
everything save matter in the universe, is not 
necessarily to deny a Divine principle, as is 
shown by many of the ancient schools of phil- 
osophy, nor even to deny a moral governor, 
as is shown by the philosophy of Hobbes, 
who, denying in one part of his writings the 
existence of all spirit, and in this respect car- 
rying his views further than Dr. Priestley, 
yet makes God the corner-stone of moral and 
political science. Hobbes distinctly says that 
there being nothing, in his opinion, but mat- 
ter in the universe, it follows that God is mat- 
ter. 

But it is to be remarked, in opposition to 
materialism, even as it is put forth by Dr. 
Priestley, that it is devoid of philosophical 
foundation, and rests on a disregard of the. 
limits of true philosophy. Its truth cannot be 
tested by observation. It rests altogether on 
hypothesis and conjecture. When we go 
beyond what are called the qualities of the 
mind, or of matter either, and speculate upon 
what it is itself, whether it is something else, 
or different from that something, whether it 



88 

has or has not an existence, we have no help 
but in supposing and conjecturing and imag- 
ining. Such speculations may doubtless be 
interesting, and they may have their use too 
as an exercise for the imagination, but we 
cannot calculate upon their results. Much 
mischief is done, moreover, by mixing up 
these results with the results of observation, 
by jumbling together conjecture and philos- 
ophy. The true philosopher, not despising, 
but setting aside as irrelevant to his object, 
all speculations on the origin and nature of 
mind, or of matter either, will start from these 
as first principles, and will apply himself to 
observing their qualities and capabilities and 
laws; and the results will be sound psychology 
and sound physics. 

MATTER. 

This is the name given to everything which 
is not mind. Such seems to be the only way of 
defining the word; and though the definition 
may appear to assume that mind is not mat- 
ter, the contrary of which has been contended 
by the class of writers called materialists, yet 



8 9 

it does not really do so. For whatever theory- 
may be adopted as to the nature of mind, 
whether it be considered as a separate prin- 
ciple from matter, or merely as a different 
manifestation of the same principle, the word 
mind is indifferently retained; and our defini- 
tion may consequently be at once reconciled 
with the materialist theory by paraphrasing it 
thus: — matter is the name given to the sub- 
stance composing the universe, under all its 
different modifications, excepting only that 
one which is known by the name of mind. 

Matter then is the name for that out of 
which all objects external to the mind are 
thought to be composed, the question being 
reserved, whether the mind is or is not com- 
posed of the same substance. What this sub- 
stance is, to which the name of matter is 
given, we do not know, and have no means of 
knowing. Various speculations have been 
made as to its nature, and theories formed 
concerning the manner of its composi- 
tion; but these have no better basis 
than conjecture. Other speculations have 
been made as to whether there is 
such a thing as matter or not; and some phil- 



9 o 



osophers have seen in the solid world around 
us nothing but a creation of the mind. 

Man, subject to certain affections of his 
senses, is led to assign those affections to an 
external cause. This external cause is that 
which he calls matter. What this matter is in 
itself he knows not. He knows only its capa- 
bility of producing in him certain affections, 
the ordinary affections of the five senses (sen- 
sations as they are called), and those which 
give the ideas of extension and resistance. 
Thus, having already supposed something 
without, he pronounces these to be qualities 
of that something; ignorant all the while what 
that something is, and knowing it only as the 
substratum of the qualities. 



1900 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



0 028 310 080 7 



